In 1954 Herbert Morrison said that a ‘minister is responsible for every stamp stuck on every envelope’ in their department. Using examples, critically discuss whether the above statement is accurate today

Introduction Herbert Morrison’s comments represent an ideal of Ministerial Responsibility which his political heirs and descendants have, in truth, abandoned to a large degree. In part this reflects new political realities and a change in the behaviour of politicians who strive to protect individual reputation at the expense of what was once a sacred principle of Government[1]. The responsibility to which Herbert Morrison alludes to arises often in the context of when a minister should resign which has undergone some marked transformations over the years as the apparatus of Whitehall has exploded and powers have been invested in individual ministers: non-departmental bodies, public corporations and other agencies such as quangos[2] now complement ever growing departments. As Diane Longley & Norman Lewis observe the roots of the principle stretch far back before Morrison’s time to the days of Dicey where the liability to loss of office was extended to â€Å"all official acts† [3] which invariably covered departmental maladministration to more serious matters. The principle, as a means of holding the executive branch of the government to account, has been justifiably described as â€Å"hollow†, a â€Å"ruling fiction† [4] and leading constitutional scholars have called for reform in this area as far back as the year 2000[5]. Even back in 1956 Professor Finer cast doubt upon its very existence in the wake of the Crichel Down affair[6]. No such reform or replacement has ever arrived, however, and despite notable episodes such as the Hutton inquiry, the cash for questions probes and the recent expenses scandal in Westminster no alternative theory or principle has surfaced[7]. The operation of the principle has also been seen as not aiding government accountability but hindering it by many commentators: â€Å"Many students of public administration, including the authors, have long taken the view that ministerial responsibility/accountability (M.R.) as the ruling convention for calling the executive to account is hollow. Indeed, operating at its most pernicious, it is a system for the mutually-reinforcing active concealment of government action and public purposes.†[8] This essay will focus on whether the principle of ministerial responsibility, as described by Herbert Morrison, is still accurate in the political climate of 2012. In part 1 this essay will look into the Crichel Down affair of 1937 to establish the supposed convention and then in part 2 the Scott Report, which was commissioned after it emerged that Britain had sold arms to Iraq, will be analysed. The inescapable conclusion is that Morrison’s statement reflects a nobler and purer vision of politics than now endures and that the principle has been so eroded by time as to be virtually unrecognisable: if indeed it existed in the first place. Part 1: Crichel Down affair As Bradley & Ewing point out the Crichel Down Affair of 1937 is the acknowledged starting point in any discussion of ministerial responsibility[9]. Farmland in Dorset, which was called Crichel Down, was acquired under compulsory purchase powers[10] by the Air Ministry in 1938 prior to the outbreak of war for a new bombing range[11]. Lieutenant Commander Marten asked that the land be sold back to his family (who had previously owned most of the land) but what followed was, in the opinion of the subsequent inquiry setup to investigate the affair, â€Å"muddle, inefficiency, bias and bad faith on the part of some officials named in the report†[12]. In particular an inaccurate report was drafted by a junior civil servant that led to the Ministry of Agriculture adopting a scheme which deprived the former owners of rights in the land or as Wass succinctly puts it, â€Å"bona fide applicants for the land had not been given the opportunity they had been promised to bid for a rental o r for possession of the land†[13]. Wass highlights the two senior civil servants identified by the inquiry who did attempt to cover their own tracks once the facts were apparent: â€Å"The one [mistake] on which everyone seized was the impropriety of the two principal officials who, realising that applicants to rent or buy the land had not been given the opportunities they had been led to expect, sought to appear retrospectively to have considered their case. This was manifestly wrong and would have been a suitable subject for a mild criticism by the Ombudsman, if he had existed at the time and had the case been referred to him. But it is pretty clear from the papers that, even if the applicants’ cases had been considered, the outcome, viz. a decision to continue to farm the unit as a single unit by a farmer of proved ability, would have been the same.†[14] The end result was that the Minister of Agriculture, Sir Thomas Dugdale, resigned and the two civil servants were moved to other duties[15]. The constitutional legacy of Crichel Down was that it is now cited as â€Å"the last example of a minister’s acceptance of responsibility for all the acts of his department†[16]. In the subsequent debate in the House of Commons Sir David Maxwell’s Fyfe, the then Home Secretary, sought to clarify four situations in which a Minister must vicariously â€Å"accept responsibility† to varying degrees for the actions or inactions of his civil servants ranging from where an explicit order is given to where action is taken by a civil servant of which the â€Å"Minister disapproves and has no previous knowledge†[17]. This continuum of responsibility did not contain any mention of resignation and the topic remains wedded to circumstances: â€Å"there is no duty on a minister to resign when maladministration has occurred within his or her department†[18]. The key factors which influence a resignation are for the most part political: a fact which is corroborated by Professor Finer[19] and Bradley & Ewing’s seminal work on constitutional law[20]. Part 2: Arms to Iraq By the convention supposedly crystallised in the aftermath of the Crichel Down affair the Ministers responsible for exporting arms to Iraq would have had to have resigned in the wake of the Scott Report into the affair in 1996[21]. Ultimately there were no resignations despite a close vote in the Commons during the debate on the report. The conclusions of the report were, however, devastating in finding that there were numerous failings by ministers to keep Parliament appraised of their arms exporting policy and, fundamentally, they had misled Parliament, albeit not intentionally[22]. Instead the ministers involved managed to slip into what Margaret Liu has called an â€Å"accountability gap† which exploits the definitions given to responsibility and accountability respectively[23]. As Liu explains: â€Å"A minister is ‘accountable’ to Parliament for what had occurred in his department without that implying personal blame on the part of a minister if things had gone wrong. By contrast, a minister is said to be ‘responsible’ for broad policy, and the issues that he/she has been personally involved, not for all department affairs. In other words, the minister is not responsible for what is done by the civil service in the Next Steps agency where he has delegated the accountability for administration from parent departments.†[24] This relatively new artificial distinction allows ministers to escape responsibility for actions in their department carried out by civil servants and ultimately leads, as Liu rightly observes, to â€Å"potential areas of government for which no one is ‘responsible’ to Parliament, even though a minister remains ‘accountable’†[25]. Thus despite all of the furore created by the report the ministers were ultimately able to hang onto their jobs and there was to be no supreme sacrifice a la Sir Thomas Dugdale in the Crichel Down affair. This distinction appears to have fuelled the practice of misleading Parliament and being creative with the truth to avoid liability in respect of departmental maladministration. As Liu points out individual ministerial responsibility essentially involves the private conduct of a minister, the minister’s conduct of his/her department and vicarious acts of civil servants[26]. Personal conduct seems to be the exception with many ministers resigning because it was impossible to conduct their duties in the media glare[27] but as Bradley & Ewing note â€Å"there have been very few resignations by ministers taking vicarious responsibility for the errors of civil servants in their departments†[28]. The level of culpability was high in the Arms to Iraq case and the fact that no minister lost their jobs is reflective of modern political times where no minister resigns unless the matter is exceptionally serious or private conduct is preventing them doing their jobs. As Longley & Lewis conclude: â€Å"If the minister is indeed responsible for systems, then he is responsible for their failure either directly or through the identification of those who are. If this is not the case, then plainly ministerial responsibility is a myth. Slowly the effectiveness of the convention has been eroded†¦Scott may have been successfully defused in the party-political arena, but if his report is left to gather dust when it is an indictment of the deep-seated failure of parliamentary government, then the fabled British system will deserve all the disapprobation which it is bound to receive.†[29] Conclusion In conclusion Herbert Morrison’s statement was inaccurate even back in the political climate in which it was created: a time when a minister would supposedly fall for the actions of any civil servant and would do the right thing by standing down[30]. As Professor Finer justifiably notes, the cases which precede the Crichel Down affair do not even lend substance to the convention and the principle in fact relies upon factors such as the mood of the Prime Minister and the will of the minister concerned rather than an overriding sense of accepting responsibility for the actions of others[31]. Applied to the modern political climate the statement is wildly inaccurate with various commentators rightly alleging that it is a â€Å"myth† in the British constitution[32]. The Scott Report demonstrates the pliability of the principle well and the artificial distinctions between ‘responsibility’ and ‘accountability’, inextricably linked, serve only to furt her consign the principle to the dustbin of history save in the most serious of cases. Now creativity is used in giving answers to Parliament and all responsibility is to be evaded until the eleventh hour. This is, as noted in the introduction, a reflection of the growth of the apparatus of the state and the unelected power of ministers. Professor Finer’s four categories are more realistic even in 2012: â€Å"There are four categories of delinquent Ministers: the fortunate, the less fortunate, the unfortunate, and the plain unlucky. After sinning, the first go to other Ministries ; the second to Another Place ; the third just go. Of the fourth there are but twenty examples in a century†¦Ã¢â‚¬ [33] Bibliography Journals Finer, E.S. (1956) ‘The Individual Responsibility of Ministers’ Public Administration 377 Liu, Margaret L (2002) ‘Ministerial Responsibility and Constitutional Law’ Coventry Law 7(2) pp25-37 at p.29 Longley, D & Lewis, Norman (1996) ‘Ministerial Responsibility: The Next Steps’ Public Law Autumn pp490-507 Wass, Douglas (1988) ‘The Mystery of Crichel Down’ Public Law Autumn pp473 – 475 Books Bradey, AW & Ewing, KD (2007) Constitutional & Administrative Law Pearson: worldwide Tomkins, Adam (1998) The Constitution After Scott: Government Unwrapped Oxford University Press: Oxford Turpin, Colin (1994) â€Å"Ministerial Responsibility: Myth or Reality?† in J. Jowell and D. Oliver (eds.), The Changing Constitution, (3rd ed), pp. 114-115

A Personal Story

In my essay I am going to share a personal story with you that will tell you how I had to face hardships in order to pursue my studies. It’s all basically related to my education.So my story starts off from the time when I was studying at school. I was an above average student in the junior classes but once I started getting promoted to higher classes, my grades were affected and they started declining.Things worsened for me when I reached the tenth grade. I was in my O-levels at that time and so I had to leave school as my family was also facing a financial crisis.Once I left school, I appeared for my O-levels exams as a private candidate and after completing my O-levels, I joined a local school as an English teacher.Teaching English was not my only subject, I was also assigned to teach some of the other English subjects such as General Knowledge, Geography, History, etc. along with mathematics to the students of grade two, three and four. Although I was not much satisfied wi th the compensation I was getting but it was indeed a good start as I did not have any previous experience of teaching before and even my qualifications were not much as I had just done my O-levels at that time.Side by side, I started preparing to sit for A-levels examinations for which I choose three subjects. However, teaching was a hard job but along with teaching I decided to prepare for my exams but mostly due to lack of time I could not study.Other than that, as it was my first experience of working anywhere, I had to learn a lot as to how to respond or react to certain situations as I am a kind of person who very frequently gets angry at things and gets irritated by any small thing but at work, I had to control my impatience.This was the time when I started taking things in a different way. Although I was still impatient and fussy about things but I had to accept things that I was being told by my seniors to do. Therefore, I learnt to be patient and how to respond to things. In the world outside it’s usually that you always cannot say the things in a way that you really feel. However, one has to be very much careful due to the persisting politics in an organization and same was for the school I was working at.Moreover, working here made me learn new things that were proved to be helpful for my career and for my future. During this time, I became fussy about some things and I did plan to resign but my resignation never used to be accepted as the principal wanted me to continue working for her. Months passed and the date of my A-levels examinations came nearer and nearer that created a tension for me.As I mentioned above, I am not a brilliant student who could understand the concepts just by reading the books once. Therefore, to prepare for my examinations, I talked to my employer and asked him for an early off every day so that I could go home early and I could study. There were just three months left for my examinations when I started studying fo r my examinations and that too along with the work load of the place I was working at.Finally, the date of my examination came and I appeared for my A-levels examinations. The result was supposed to be announced a couple of months later. Meanwhile, I was still working at the school and during that time I also started preparing for my entrance test for my bachelors degree that was to be held a month after my A-levels examinations.Therefore, I gave my entrance test and was glad to know that I had cleared it. A few days later, I had my interview at my university and I cleared that as well. This was the time when I finally resigned and left the job as my university was to start within a month. I worked at the school for more or less a year.Meanwhile, I prepared for my university that started soon. I used all my savings to pay my university tuition fee and in the end I was left with nothing. Therefore, to cope up with my financial expenses, I decided to give home tuitions to the students .These students basically used to be from primary level classes and the basic subjects that I used to give tuitions for were English and Mathematics. I kept on giving tuitions to different students throughout as I was supposed to pay my university tuition fees as still my family was facing a financial crisis. Therefore, to continue my studies, I had to continue giving tuitions to the students.At university, I was enjoying my life although studies at this level got a little tougher and I had to study hard in order to achieve good grades in the courses I appeared for. Besides the academics, I took part in the extra circular activities at my university such as in sports, declamation contests, drama, etc. and this was the fun part of the time I used to spend at the university besides the stress of the studies.

Mamluks

The emergent of Mamluks started under Hasan Pasha's whose intent was to strengthen his personal base of power by creating a group of disciplined military and civil functionaries committed uniquely to him and not to the government at Istanbul or the Arabs of Baghdad. A page corps was formed, originally recruited from local families but later composed almost exclusively of slaves imported from the Caucasus and Georgia (Thomas Philipp, Ulrich Haarmann, 1998. These slaves were instructed in reading and writing, but also horse-manship and swimming, a combination of martial and bureaucratic virtues making them superior to Turks and Iraqis as civil servants. Their training emphasized a sense of interdependence and â€Å"esprit de corps. † They were made to feel that they owed their privilege to their master and to the Mamluks institution. John Joseph Saunders in the â€Å"The History of the Mongol Conquests† noted that the Mamluks dominated the power elite, but as an alien force, and they were merciless to any suspected rival to their authority. A close disciplined fraternity, and the only effective civil and military organization within the country, they provided their pashas with the power of an independent monarch. He argued, nevertheless, Mamluk pashas at no time renounced allegiance to the sultan of the Ottoman Empire. He went on to explain how they defended Iraq from the Wahhabis and Persians but did not create war on neighbors within the empire. They were the only Islamic dynasty that withstands the invasions of the Turks and Mongol. They were slave boy children captured and trained carefully groomed for life as military men. They were leaders’ corps of warrior-slaves, mostly from Turkic or Kurdish Central Asia, but also including some Christians from the Caucasus region of south-eastern Europe. They were called the Mamluks which literally mean slave. According to historians, Mamluks were young boys who were not Muslim and groomed to be Sunni Muslim soldiers( Saunders 2001). The Mamluk institution creates a lot speculation and comment among pre modern observers. Consequently, James Waterson reported that the Mamluks are the slave warriors of medieval Islam who overthrew their masters, defeated the Mongols and the Crusaders and established a dynasty that lasted three hundred years. He continued to say that these young boys turn out to be great soldiers. Interestingly, Halperin commented that at the same time as the Islamic world was combating off Christian Crusaders from Europe, the great Muslim general Saladin conquered Egypt in 1169, founding the Ayyubid Dynasty. He also stated that Saladan and his descendants used increasing numbers of Mamluk soldiers in their struggles for power. In fact, according Charles Halperin a researcher in the field of history commented how during this time the Crusaders controlled several small coastal principalities in the Holy Land. † He explained that during the war the Mongols approached the Mamluks offering them an alliance against the Muslims. The Crusaders' former enemies, the Mamluks, also sent representative to the Christians offering a deal against the Mongols. † They feared that the Mongols were a more immediate threat, the Crusader states opted to remain nominally neutral, but agreed to allow the Mamluks’ armies to pass unhindered through Christians’ occupied lands.

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Discuss the relationship between the informal economy in the socialist Essay

Discuss the relationship between the informal economy in the socialist states and the emergence of capitalism in these states after 1989 - Essay Example This was referred to as the socialist experiment that became defunct in the year 1989 throughout the Eastern Europe for unidentified reasons, eventually resulting in the end of the Soviet Union in 1991. This in turn, unlocked new doors of transitions and socio cultural transitions in the region. The formal economy is the essence of the contemporary perceptive of the states following the capitalist concept to influence the globe whereas the informal economy is the unpredictable or irregular perception designed and practiced by specific people although these are less powerful than the ones endorsed by dominant power and wealth. The study of the same era and the historical accounts help one to understand the theory of socialism and its practice as well as the changes that occurred from region to region. For instance China, the largest country in East Asia developed into a socialist state in 1949 and the Republic of Cuba witnessed the Cuban Revolution that led to the overthrow of the Dictator government of Cuban President Fulgencio Batista on January 1, 1959 by the 26th of July movement and other revolutionary organizationsin 1959, and was declared a socialist state in 1961. The trends occurring in socialist and post socialist Eastern Europe and akin in the capitalist West, such as privatization, the growth of neo-liberalism or the weakening of the welfare state resulted in many changes over the years. According to Pine (1996) the importance of class and gender equality became bona fide in the Eastern European states after the end of socialist states therefore allowing equal rights to the women with the likes of men in the society. As in Poland where previously extremely progressive rights were practiced that failed to be implemented in the socialist period. The Eastern Europe observed the same with women consigned to the private sphere, depriving them of basic rights. The same observation has been derived by Foucault (1991) regarding the improvement in the governmental operations in terms of practicality and efficiency through the historical perspective by learning and inventing innovative likewise improved plans of governing. Disparagement further sti mulates such progress through the modifications in actions and extensions of limits. If we study the comparisons of some post socialism countries, using ethnographic examples we come to know that vast diversities from Hungary, Romania and Transylvania considering each nation has a different backdrop of the post socialism period along with specific array of tribulations. The Hungarian ethnographers demonstrated dissimilarities in personalities, interests and specializations between the North American and native European ethnographic studies. In Eastern Europe citizens were faced with colonialists, Western and capitalist society settings. Considering similar issues the anthropological studies and comparisons of the Eastern Europe with the Third and fourth world countries were conciliatory. As Verdery (1999) points out the presence of additional features of socialism that made general ideas significant for normal people living in regions having ethnic groups amalgamated rather than territorially

Myths and Misconceptions about Viruses and Security Essay Example for Free

Myths and Misconceptions about Viruses and Security Essay Computer viruses, as they are commonly known today, are malicious malware design to destroy and distort the normal working of a computer. The first known origin of computer viruses is estimated to be in the 1960’s CITATION Nat14 l 1033 (Devotta, 2014). The virus was in form of a game called Core Wars, and would self-replicate every time it was run. The group of programmers who developed it also made the first known anti-virus called Reeper. It was not until 1983, that one of these programmers announced the existence of Core Wars CITATION Ant l 1033 (AntivirusWorld, n. d.). In the same era, an influx of personal computers flooded the market and games became very popular. As a result, malicious viruses like Trojan horse were developed and innocent consumers downloaded them thinking that they were nice games only to feel the repercussions later. Since then, many viruses have been developed and continue to cause havoc to our computer experience. A computer virus is a malicious code that is written with instructions to replicate itself in a host computer and attaches itself to files and programs in the machine CITATION All l 1033 (AllAboutCookies, n.d.). Often, this happens without the consent of the user, and once the machine is booted or the infected program is launched, the virus attacks and damages data. In the case where an infected file is saved on a storage device, transfer of that file to another computer repeats the cycle and the virus re-infects the new host computer CITATION Sym10 l 1033 (Symantec, 2010). Viruses are designed to be spread via several media, where they piggyback on emails, programs, or network systems. The same way myths and misconceptions arise after a deadly disease pandemic, the computer world is full of myths about viruses. Some of the most common unfounded myths include; Mac users are virus proof, firewalls block off viruses, formatting and re-installing the operating system of an infected computer and then backing up one’s data gets rid of viruses, using antivirus programs protects one fully from viruses, signs of error messages popping up on one’s computer indicate that the computer is infected, corrupted files and blue screen displays on computers indicate a virus attack CITATION Rak11 l 1033 (Tembhurne, 2011). While some of these misconception hold water, they are not absolutely true all the time. A common scenario for internet users is the appearance of irritating pop-up messages, especially when browsing. While some of these messages are strategies for internet marketing by companies, and are indeed inevitable, it is possible for one to block pop-up messages- without purchasing software. First and foremost, there are free downloadable pop-up blockers that are effective on general browser pop-up ads. Examples include, Google Toolbar, Yahoo Companion Toolbar, Pop-up Stopper, PopUp Blocker, WorldIQ Toolbar and CleanMyPC, just to name but a few CITATION Kio15 l 1033 (Kioskea, 2015). Peer-to-peer file sharing programs are another source of disturbing pop-ups, especially once you install a program downloaded from these sites. To get rid of search, uninstall any unfamiliar programs from the Control Panel. Most browsers today also come with in-built software that block pop-ups, and can be adjusted to block the ads under the Settings tab. A good example is Internet Explorer CITATION Uni04 l 1033 (Iowa, 2004). Using Windows XP Service Pack 2 is also another viable option since the latest version includes a built-in Pop-up blocker CITATION Ram07 l 1033 (Srinivasan, 2007). References AllAboutCookies. (n.d.). Retrieved from All About Cookies.org: http://www.allaboutcookies.org/security/computer-viruses.html AntivirusWorld. (n.d.). History of Computer Viruses. Retrieved from http://www.antivirusworld.com/articles/history.php Devotta, N. (2014, Septemner 4). A short History of Computer Viruses. Retrieved from COMODO Antivirus: https://antivirus.comodo.com/blog/computer-safety/short-history-computer-viruses/ Iowa, U. o. (2004, June). Pop-up blocking. Retrieved from Information Technology Services @ The University of Iowa: https://helpdesk.its.uiowa.edu/articles/june2004/popupblocking.htm Kioskea. (2015, March). How to get rid of Pop-Up ads. Retrieved from http://en.kioskea.net/faq/104-how-to-get-rid-of-pop-up-ads Srinivasan, R. (2007, October 27). How to block Pop-ups? Retrieved from Rameshs Site: http://windowsxp.mvps.org/Popups.htm Symantec. (2010). pc tools. Retrieved from http://www.pctools.com/security-news/what-do-computer-viruses-do/ Tembhurne, R. (2011, May 10). 15 Myths and Misconceptions about Viruses and Security Applications. Retrieved from http://rakesh.tembhurne.com/15-myths-and-misconceptions-about-viruses-and-security-applications/ Source document

Determination of Vitamin C Content in Foods

Determination of Vitamin C Content in Foods Zheng Xiao Introduction Vitamin C, also known as L-ascorbic acid, is an essential component of our diets. It is a good antioxidant, a key component that helps to prevent damage to proteins and deoxyribonucleic acids. In the food industry, vitamin C is added to increase the nutritional content of food products and also for preservative purposes. As the human body is unable to synthesise vitamin C, it would have to be consumed as part of our diet. Fresh fruits and vegetables for instance are common sources of vitamin C. Vitamin C is a labile compound and is easily degraded by enzymes and atmospheric oxygen. Its oxidation can be accelerated by excessive heat, light, and heavy metal cations (Pisoschi, Danet, Kalinowski, 2008). During the manufacturing process, some vitamin C would be lost. Thus, in fruit juice products, vitamin C level is commonly used as a gauge for quality. This prompts manufacturers to fortify their products with high levels of vitamin C to ensure that sufficient vitamin C is present in the product throughout the storage process. Due to the wide use of ascorbic acid in both food products and in the pharmaceutical industry, many analytical methods exist for the determination of ascorbic acid, including titrimetric, spectrophotometric and chromatographic methods, each with their advantages and disadvantages. An example of a titrant used is 2,6-dichlorophenolindophenol (DCIP), which will oxidise the ascorbic acid that is present in the sample. While titrimetric methods are simple to use, they are also known to overestimate the amount of ascorbic acid present due to the presence of oxidisable species other than ascorbic acid (Hernà ¡ndez, Lobo, Gonzà ¡lez, 2006). In addition, many interferences often occur with coloured samples (Arya, Mahajan, Jain, 2000). An example would be the masking of colour change at the end point of titration by highly coloured extracts from fruits and vegetables (Eitenmiller, Landen, Ye, 2007). Spectrophotometric methods work by determining the absorbance of vitamin C which is compared against standard concentrations. However, such methods are susceptible to possible interference due to absorbance exhibited by other components that is present in the sample matrix. Lastly, chromatographic methods are commonly used because of their simplicity, short analysis time and sensitivity (de Quirà ³s, Fernà ¡ndez-Arias, Là ³pez-Hernà ¡ndez, 2009). The sample is separated into its components based on their relative affinity with the mobile and stationary phase. Reversed-phase high performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC) for instance is a very efficient method that is used in ascorbic acid analysis of fruits, vegetables and beverages. Ascorbic acid is relatively hydrophilic due to the presence of several hydroxyl groups. Thus, it has a higher affinity to the polar mobile phase than the non-polar stationary phase, allowing it to be separated from the other components in a sample. The retention time gives a qualitative analysis of the sample while the area under the peak allows for the quantitative determination of ascorbic acid content present. However, a major disadvantage of this method is its high cost compared to other conventional methods. The objective of this experiment is to determine the ascorbic acid content in commercial guava juice by RP-HPLC. Materials and Methods The product analysed was commercial guava juice. The experimental procedure was as stated in the laboratory manual, with the slight amendments as follows. The filtrate (2mL) from the centrifuged sample was diluted (1 part sample: 4 part acetic acid) with 2% acetic acid. Five sets of standard ascorbic acid solutions were prepared (40ppm, 80ppm, 120ppm, 160ppm and 200ppm for each set) using a stock solution (1000ppm ascorbic acid) and 2% acetic acid for dilution. The standard solutions were filtered using the 0.45 micron cellulose acetate syringe filter, beginning with the lowest concentration. The column used was a Phenomenex Ultrasphere 5u C18 column (1504.6mm) and the wavelength used was 254nm. Results and Discussion A calibration graph was plotted (Figure 1) using average peak area (Table A1 in appendix) for standard solutions versus their respective concentrations. For each standard solution, four duplicates were prepared. This was done to increase the accuracy of the calibration curve. The r2 value obtained (0.9984) was close to the ideal value 1, indicating a good linear correlation between the area under peak of interest and ascorbic acid concentration. This allows good estimates of ascorbic acid content to be made given the area under peak of interest for each sample. Table 1. Ascorbic acid concentration in samples prepared by Groups 10 to 18 Sample calculation for Group 11: Ascorbic acid concentration in diluted sample = = 116ppm Ascorbic acid concentration in original sample = 116ppm 5 = 581ppm = 58.1 mg / 100mL of juice Average ascorbic acid concentration in original sample = =58.0 mg / 100mL of juice The average retention time of the samples prepared by different groups was 2.557min (Table A3 in Appendix), which is highly similar to that of the ascorbic acid standard solutions was 2.559min (Table A2 in Appendix). This verifies that ascorbic acid was the component analysed. The average ascorbic acid concentration in the guava juice product determined experimentally was 58.0mg/100mL of juice. This was approximately 3.9 times higher than the amount indicated on the packaging (15mg/100mL). As mentioned earlier, As the expiration date is approached, ascorbic acid would be lost to different extents depending on the storage conditions (Kabasakalis, Siopidou, Moshatou, 2000). Manufacturers are known to add ascorbic acid to their products to improve their nutritional value and also to account for the ascorbic acid lost during the manufacturing and storage process (Ottaway, 2008). Since the experiment was conducted before the expiration date of the product (March 14, 2014), a higher ascorbic acid content would be expected. The original ascorbic acid concentration for group 14 was excluded from the calculation as it was almost double of other results and thus likely to be an outlier. A possible reason might be an error in dilution during the preparation of the sample. The other results were found to be precise with a low standard deviation (1.4) and a low coefficient of variation (2.5%). Conclusion The ascorbic acid content of commercial guava juice determined using RP-HPLC was 58.0mg/100mL of juice. References Arya, S. P., Mahajan, M., Jain, P. (2000). Non-spectrophotometric methods for the determination of Vitamin C. Analytica Chimica Acta, 417(1), 1-14. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0003-2670(00)00909-0 de Quirà ³s, A. R.-B., Fernà ¡ndez-Arias, M., Là ³pez-Hernà ¡ndez, J. (2009). A screening method for the determination of ascorbic acid in fruit juices and soft drinks. Food Chemistry, 116(2), 509-512. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.03.013 Eitenmiller, R. R., Landen, W. O., Ye, L. (2007). Vitamin Analysis for the Health and Food Sciences, Second Edition: Taylor Francis. Hernà ¡ndez, Y., Lobo, M. G., Gonzà ¡lez, M. (2006). Determination of vitamin C in tropical fruits: A comparative evaluation of methods. Food Chemistry, 96(4), 654-664. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2005.04.012 Kabasakalis, V., Siopidou, D., Moshatou, E. (2000). Ascorbic acid content of commercial fruit juices and its rate of loss upon storage. Food Chemistry, 70(3), 325-328. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0308-8146(00)00093-5 Ottaway, P. B. (2008). Food Fortification and Supplementation: Technological, Safety and Regulatory Aspects: Elsevier Science. Pisoschi, A. M., Danet, A. F., Kalinowski, S. (2008). Ascorbic Acid Determination in Commercial Fruit Juice Samples by Cyclic Voltammetry. Journal of Automated Methods and Management in Chemistry, 2008. doi: 10.1155/2008/937651 Appendix Table A1. Area under peak of interest for standard solutions Average area under peak for 40ppm = = 2197282 Table A2. Retention Times for standard solutions Table A3. Retention Times for samples prepared by Groups 10 to 18

Two Contrasting Organizations Tesco And Oxfam Commerce Essay

Two Contrasting Organizations Tesco And Oxfam Commerce Essay Tesco is a shopping mart where we can purchase our essential things. It can also be define as a global grocery and general merchandising vendor headquartered in UK. Sir Jack Cohen founded Tesco in 1919, when he began to sell extra food stuff from a stall in the East End of London. Tesco first appeared above a shop in Edgware in 1929 and since then the company has grown and developed. Tesco is the third largest retailer in the world measured by income Tesco private limited corporation (PLC) is the biggest super mart in UK which has 29% of shares in market compared to other companies like asda which has 17% shares in market. PLC private limited company and dont allow its shares for sale publically. Plc company makes profit more than public companies. A Plc company has no limits of share and share capital and there is no limit to the members liability because there is no limitation on members liability Purpose of Tesco is to make money and invest and sale quality products. And provide reliable materials to consumers. Why do Tesco exist? Tesco exist to provide the goods and services that people and earning money and profits from business .it provides jobs for people the Tesco provides daily need products . Products that customers demand like food, clothes, Home electircs,Sound and vision ,Bed and bath, Furniture and kitchen, Clothing and jewellery, Toys and gift, Baby and toddlers, Garden needs. Products and services supplied at profit, at cost and below cost. Tesco is getting profit by introducing new brands and also selling goods at lease.tehy are getting profit on products by supplying them to other countries and at whole sale. They can sell products by introducing off packages to customers at low prices for a specific duration which means to make them as a regular customers to gain profit in future. And also out of seasons sale which shows selling at low cost. Objectives of TESCO are as tesco is UKs finest food retailers having 519 stores in England, Wales, and Scotland. And 105 stores in France managed by wine producer and 44 in Hungary managed by international. Tesco offers best reasonable prices. Tesco meets the need of customers opinions regarding advance product quality, choice, store facilities and service Tesco is the main profitable investment with progressive return. Tesco is introducing young talents and sound management of workers and training practices and giving job on marit basis not by personal relations.Tesco maintaining its relationships with product makers supplier on quality and price criteria. Tesco is co operating on making of food in industry. also Providing good environment and protection. Ownership can be defined as Employee or executive who has the principle responsibility for a business, or project The public sector in this type of ownership only British people can get ownership in Tesco to gain profit. Sole Traders controlled and financed by one person. Least expensive form of ownership to organize. Sole proprietors receive all income generated by the business to keep or reinvest. Partnerships contains 2 -20 members who share their assets and profits from business. Public Limited Companies (PLCs) shares to the general public it contains Minimum of 2 but no maximum number of shareholders Private Limited Companies contains financed and controlled by between 2 and 50 shareholders. Franchises .A business which has bought the right to trade under established name in different cities.e.g McDonalds, KFC. Co-operatives it contains Groups of people who enter business and share the benefits customers Co-operatives, Producer Co-operatives, Worker Co-operatives. Charitable trust for helping famines and collect funds from rich .and also receives funds from GOVT. OXFAM It is a trouble reliever organization which includes 14 countries organization with 3,000 partners in around 100 countries to decrease poverty and injustice .It can be define as an International organization which helps and provide training and financial aid to people in developing countries and disaster areas. A UK based organization which was established in the 1942. Oxfam is campaigns, development program and emergency response by co operation of internationally connected associations. Oxfam international was formed in 1995 by an independent non government organization. Development Works with local partner organization And helps poor and poverty. And realizing People Their rights e.g. education, health Emergency Oxfam provides life saving aids during Emergency and help people for Future Crises Campaigning Putting the pressure on leaders to make long lasting change Oxfam International is group of 13 independent association contains Germany Australia, Belgium, Canada, France, , Great Britain, New Zealand, Hong Kong, Ireland, The Netherlands, Quebec, Spain and the United States. Why Oxfam exist? Oxfam exists to make a global impact on the causes of poverty. Today mostly countries areas are facing problems and Oxfam is the most efficient organization to help them. Campaign initiatives, planning and putting into practice new tactics and strategies to spread climate change.oxfam is trying to make relationships globally with international NGOs to develop prosperity. Objectives of OXFAM: Relieve suffering caused by natural disasters.Oxfam supports peace and understanding based upon mutual tolerance and respect. Strengthen peoples capacity to help them. Oxfam works for trade justice, fair trade, education and aid, health, HIV/AIDS, conflict ,campaigning and natural disasters, human rights, and climate change. Oxfams International purpose. The main purposes of Oxfam are Promote, assist and manage relationship between the Oxfam international to do help all disasterd people globall.and earning name at international level And removing poverty OXFAM has its committee in different countries which are as under Oxfam GB (Great Britain) .Oxfam Canada.Oxfam America. Oxfam GB (Great Britain) independent non-profit organization is the biggest family for help and has large capacity of workers and income for famines . In UK OXFAM GB was originated in 1942. Oxfam Canada is first member of Oxfam International, and was developed in 1963.in at start Canada Oxfam faced troubles soon Canada began to analyse its role in the development process. OXFAM in AMERICA an independent non-profit organization was developed in America in 1970 and fight for independence and shelter. Advantages of Oxfam are they dont have to pay tax. they get ready to help other. they receive money from businessman and Government. TESCO Stakeholder Stakeholder can be defined as a person, group or organization that has direct and indirect position in organization. It is affected by organizations rules, polices and decisions. Tesco has many stakeholders. Government, Customers, Employees, Local Community, Suppliers, and Pressure Groups: they all have equal importance in building of Tesco Customers. Usually a customer wants quality goods at a low cost. They would also want a variety of products to choose from key holders Diagram of stakeholder in organization Supplier Owners Government Creditors Customer Directors Workers Community Unions Key stakeholders in a business organization Customers. These are the people who buy products from shops and to save lives of needy people. Customers want reliable products and at low prices. Employees its how you manage in any situation; understand the customer; be first with the customer use your strength to deliver unbeatable value and look after the staff so they can look after the customer, teamwork trust and respect. Directors they are responsible for business objectives and managing all strategic decisions .director holds discussion at board meetings. Where they make strategy for improving business, Managers they are responsible for obtaining goals creating atmosphere of work among workers, each manager has handles accounting, law marketing, and sales production. Suppliers they supply products at commercial level like banking .they supply goods to different branches. Owners they are the business, assets holder, and pay the workers. Pressure groups not put up candidates for election, but seeks to influence government policy rules. Trade unions function is discuss pay and working conditions and creates discipline among workers Employee Associations they set up pay packages and employees for resolving argument. Stakeholders of Oxfam Stakeholder can be defined as a person, group or organization that has direct and indirect position in organization. It is affected by organizations rules, polices and decisions. Volunteers they are the workers who help in building Oxfams strength. Volunteering is a personal Choice, not a compulsory job. Express values in activities that are meaningful. And co operates for helping in medicine, education, or emergency rescue. Campaign supporters The Individuals, celebrities, politicians and organizations across the run campaign for collecting funds and to remove illiteracy and poverty. Individual donors this types of donors can make decisions faster, they mostly work in under developed countries to make them growing countries, and feel this easy to work alone. Donate personally money, clothes for removing poverty. Customers are the main participant in organization. They help by buying food, drinks, and also help organization by used drink bottles and wrappers for recycling and make collection for Oxfam. Without their involvement it is not possible collecting money for Oxfam. Employees they are workers of Oxfam and work in flood relieving, food preparation, palcing people in save places when they get infected. Pressure groups they help in protesting if Government is not funding properly.ank manage strike on roads, institutes, cites and encourage people for infected s help from Govt. FUNCTIONAL AREA OF TESCO Board of Directors Finance department Marketing sales department Production department Finance manager Accountant Marketing manager Area sales manager Sales staff Production manager Production supervisor Production workers Human resource department Human resource manager Clerical assistant ICT department Board of directors people are the people of tesco who have decision-making rights, voting rights specific responsibilities which in each case are separate and distinct from the authority and responsibilities of owners and managers of the business entity. Finance department is responsible of balance sheets, profit and loss of tesco and responsible to keep records of fund and all planning of Tesco financial income and loss. Finance manager duties are to make investment sheets ,financial reports, activities, and implement cash management strategies. Accountant helps managers to make reports, investments (savings), and tax implementations. Handles profit loss details, cost production, financial statements. Marketing sales department function is to understand users needs and fulfil requirements with quality of goods and also pay attention to their demands and fulfil that correctly. Sales manager sales out products and provide services to the customer for the profit and want to become finest retailer. They ake products available for all customers. Production Tesco is to make sure that the goods of Tesco are formed on time and is in a suitable quality for the customers. And maintain furniture. Production managers duty is to handle all kind of goods preparation demands and duration when product will get ready for customers and at given time and at exact time and standard. Production workers made goods according to the user demands and works exactly in uniform way. They have to know all about what customer wants and what kind of material should use. Human resources keep hold of good experienced staff and only choose hardworking employees and They deal with the recruitment, employees, planning, training and paying to employees. ICT (International Computers and Tabulators) its main function is to check that all data of Tesco is stored properly. All computer software are working, all business websites are accessing.(tescopls.com) FUNCTIONAL AREA OF OXFAM Oxfam ambassadors Political counsellors Deputy Chief of mission Defence attached Economic counsellor Public affairs Chief security assistant Administrative counsellor Director Counsellor office Agency representatives Director Peace Corps Ambassadors are the highly ranked representative within a nation for other organization. and directly linked by Government. Political counsellors/ Deputy Chief of mission/ Defence attached they all are directly attached with ambassador an communicate all society problem with each other and make decisions Director is a group of people nominated by the owners of a business who have decision-making authority, voting authority specific responsibilities which in each case is separate and distinct from the authority and responsibilities of owners and managers of the business entity Deputy Chief of missionHe or she acts like a ambassador in absence of chief of mission. He handles matter in absence of chief of mission Political, Economic, Public Affairs, Management) at the Embassy,. Director Peace Corps US company that sends American volunteers to developing countries for educational, agricultural improvements. Tesco Mission and values Planning, calculating and the passing of information form rival is called mission. Tescos mission is to earn profit and sale pure goods. And to sale goods online by using website tesco.com and public dealing in good manner to make regular customers and create significance for customers to earn their lifetime reliability. Values Values of an organization defines it standards. They show Respect to each others Try to give their best. Want to be energetic and fit. Tesco strategies to become are successful international trader, to become famous business party. To be good food provider to put community at the heart of what we do. Objectives Tesco increasing customers by offering buy 1 gets 1 free. Tesco offers best reasonable prices. Tesco meets the need of customers opinions regarding advance, product quality, choice, store facilities and service Tesco is the main profitable investment with progressive return. Tesco is introducing young talents and sound management of workers and training practices and giving job on merit basis not by personal relations. Tesco maintaining its relationships with supplier (product makers) on strict quality and price criteria.Tesco is co operating on making of food in industry. Provides good environment and protection Strategic Planning Tesco is trying to make shopping easy and comfortable. Seeking to low price to help people Lessing prices. Smart objectives of Tesco Specific Tesco wants to make profit its sale. Measurable Tesco is leading in business by its major shares in market. Achievable Tesco achieve its goal by increasing its customers and making profits. Tesco has achieved it by good quality products. Realistic Tesco is third big company in world. OXFAM Mission It acts for attitudinal change to facilitate in development, socially and economically. It helps famine and giving life to them. Values satisfactory behavior within organization. Behavior of individuals within the organization. And Flexible commitment. Use time and resources efficiently Strategic aims and objectives Oxfam works for trade justice, fair trade, education and aid, health, HIV/AIDS, conflict ,campaigning and natural disasters, human rights, and climate change. and supporting children by educating them and providing food. Oxfam strategic planning process Oxfam is worlds 3rd largest nonprofit organization and Oxfam strategic planning process is to works for the removal of poverty. To fight homelessness and also for the development of undeveloped area and for progress of organization. Smart objectives of Oxfam Specific Reducing Poverty is specific objective. Measurable Oxfam is responding to 26 emergency situations worldwide. Relevant skills Oxfam is finding people who have skills to tackle problems. Time-based Oxfam includes 14 countries union working in more than 100 countries. M1 Point of Views of different stakeholders Directors the business through meetings with top managers and managing stretegies for progress of tesco.Employees should work hard on making good quality products that will make profit and also increase pay and conditions of Employees and also helpful for safety, health and pension arrangements. Customers views are to getting latest brands and saving by low price products. D1 Evaluate the influence different stakeholders exert in one organization Stakeholders stand for great influence in organization. Developing countries employees make fashionable clothes and brands to exert little power over their employers to give them jobs and getting new products. Owners are the organizations main stakeholders and gain profit and pays all bills and wages to workers and remain profit shares with shareholders directors pay attention to make strategy and decisions regarding organization Government influences by law rights to change behaviour of environmental or health and safety. Employees exert main role in business profit or loss. When the economy is active they work hard and make extra products. Customers also create great influence within an organization by purchasing products from store or online at low prices. Conclusion I was given an Assignment of two contrasting organizations Tesco and Oxfam. I found that both organizations are serving better in their departments and both are for people. in both organizations stake holder are more important participant because if you dont have too many stake holder and your profitable and non profitable organizations will not succeed in their missions. Recommendations I would like to recommend the both different organization one is profit gaining Tesco and nonprofits gaining Oxfam have good customer connection because Oxfam is an international charity which is focused on fighting poverty and providing them shelter.and Tesco is providing daily needs products for customers and also providing funds to Oxfoam so that they can participate in decreasing poverty. So both plays important role for customers.

Tiresias, Oedipus, and Self Essay -- Oedipus the King Oedipus Rex

Tiresias, Oedipus Rex, and Self  Ã‚   The play Oedipus Rex, written by Sophocles, tells a horrendous tale about one man's quest for the truth. In the play, King Oedipus was burdened with the task of finding his predecessor's murderer so that order may be restored to his kingdom. While his conscious mind was seeking the murderer, his unconscious mind was retarding his progress in order to conceal the truth. Tiresias, prophesies the truth to Oedipus, but Oedipus's unconscious mind would not hear it. Thus, when the awful truth is finally revealed, Oedipus is overwhelmed by it. This causes the physical and emotional wounds that would last him a lifetime. A supplementary piece of literature, Tiresias by Tennyson, was written to complement this play. In Tennyson's poem, he told about a man who was touched by the Gods, when he reached the point of enlightenment in his life; this man is Tiresias. Through the study of Tennyson's Tiresias, one can better understand the play Oedipus Rex, Oedipus the character and one's self. In Tiresias, the narrator speaks about his desire to be like his friend Fitz. The perception of Fitz given by Tennyson is that he was a very spiritual man touched by the Gods. Tennyson's first attempt to be like Fitz was to become a vegetarian: And once for ten long weeks I tried Your table of Pythagoras, And seem'd at first "a thing enskied," As Shakespeare has it, airy-light To float above the ways of men, Then fell from that half-spiritual height Chill'd, till I tasted flesh again One night when the earth was winter-black, And all the heavens flash'd in frost; And on me, half-asleep, came back That wholesome heat the blood had lost, And set me climbing icy capes . . . (Tennyson, 14-... ...ind's frailty consider his last day; and let none presume on his good fortune until he find life, at his death, a memory without pain." (Sophocles, 757) This imagery of peace and serenity causes one to strive for such enlightenment. After an extensive examination of both works, one's understanding of Oedipus Rex the play, Oedipus the character, and one's self is heightened. One can better understand how Tiresias, Oedipus, and one's self are bound to the ways of the flesh. One also understands that in order to break free from the ways of man, one must reach enlightenment which is done when one is touched by the Gods.    Works Cited Sophocles. "Oedipus Rex." Elements of Literature. Ed. Robert Scholes, Nancy R. Comley, Carl H. Klaus, and David Staines. Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1990. 714-757. Tennyson. "Tiresias." ENGOA1 Handout.      

Effect of Multiple Plots in The Bean Trees by Barbara Kingsolver :: essays research papers

The Bean Trees, written by Barbara Kingsolver, uses multiple plots throughout the novel. At the beginning, two plots are introduced. One involves Missy/ Taylor, the protagonist in the story, and the other involves Lou Ann. Kingsolver unites these two plot by having them move in together. Other minor plots describe the life of other characters such as Estevan and Esperanza, Edna and Virgie, and Mattie. Multiple plots in The Bean Trees increase suspense and depth in the story. The main characters in The Bean Trees are Taylor and Lou Ann. The first chapter is about Missy leaving Kentucky to find a better life. This chapter is written is 1st person, with Missy being the narrator. She is a person that is tired of her boring life, she changes her name to Taylor, and wants an adventure. She leaves home and goes on a road trip across America. Before Taylor began her trip, she stated, ?And so what I promised myself is that I would drive west until my car stopped running, and there I would stay? (Kingsolver 16). She later continued on Tucson, Arizona. On her trip, a baby girl is abandoned with her by a Native American woman. She decides to take care of Turtle as her road trip goes on. Taylor now has someone to talk to during her trip. Unfortunately for Turtle, her life has been ?Tempest-Tossed? (301). In other words, her life hasn?t been trouble-free and she?s gone through many things. It is possible to predict that the bruises on her body when she was abandoned with Taylor, was from being molested. Half her time with Taylor was on the road, and she was adjusting to a new life. The second chapter is about Lou Ann?s dilemma with her husband, Angel. This is written in omniscient limited point of view. Lou Ann and Angel have a young baby boy, Dwayne Ray. These two plots meet when Taylor responds to Lou Ann?s advertisement about a room mate, and they move in together. This gave the novel a unique introduction with two plots going on as the readers endure the suspense. The novel seems to be set in one tiny area in Tucson. Lou Ann is heading home and has just pasted the Jesus.Is.Lord?s and Fanny Heaven, when the narrator creates a clear picture of the area: ?She rounded the corner and stopped to do some grocery shopping at the Lee Sing Market, which faced the park directly across from where she and Angel lived?

Advantages and Disadvantages of Robotic Surgery

Advantages and Disadvantages of Robotic Surgery Tresha Reid-Matthew DeVry University Robotic Surgery is a surgical technology in the world of healthcare that doctors are opting to use for many surgical procedures on humans today. Robotic surgery is a procedure that involves a surgeon manipulating the hands of a robot. Many people don’t know enough about  robotic surgery. It is very important for everyone to familiarize themselves with this technology because in the near future this equipment has the potential to take over the operating rooms of many hospitals.The goal of this paper is to give some basic information about how Robotic surgical procedures has evolved and to bring to light some of the ways robotic surgical procedures might affect you one day. When I was faced with the choice of having robotic surgery two months ago I felt like I didn’t know enough about the technology. I had no knowledge of how this type of surgery would affect me. I would like people to be able to understand how this technology will affect their lives.For this assignment I decided to research the advantages and drawback of robotic surgery to inform everyone about this technology so that if faced with this choice you won’t be in the dark like I was. INTRODUCTION On television in shows such as Grey’s Anatomy the process of conventional surgical procedure are acted out on screen for the world to watch. In the near future many scenes in such shows will have to be altered to feature the surgeries being done by physicians with robotic surgical devices (if they haven’t already done so already). Robotic surgeries are becoming very common in our society.It is very important for everyone to know and understand what this practice entail so that if presented with the choice of human or machine one can make the right choice. I was living my life day to day like many people. I exercise when I can and I eat right. For a period of a little over a year I was ex periencing abdominal pains so my doctors put me through many series of exams. One of the test results came back abnormal showing that I had a tumor. Being a young woman that is recently married I was scared so I decided to have my tumor removed right away.When my husband and I sat down to discuss my options with my physician I was given a choice   between a conventional procedure that is performed solely by a human doctor or robot assisted surgical procedure that involves an actual surgeon manipulating the hands of a robotic machine. I was very frightened about the thought of having a machine working on my body because the idea was foreign to me. I heard about robots working on car and I heard of the surgical procedure but I never actually though about being the subject of one of these devices.I wasn’t confident enough about this type of surgery so I opted to go with the conventional type of procedure. Robotic surgery is performed everyday around the world and it has the po tential to dominate the world of surgery, however it has advantages and disadvantages. Discussion Many people might think that this is a topic of no interest to them because right now they don’t need a surgical procedure done or they have no plans of having a surgical procedure. To those people I would like to say neither did I!To make light of this subject the first thing I would like to do is provide a timeline that show a brief history on the development stage of robotic surgical machines. ?  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   1921 a Czechoslovakian play writer named Karel Capez introduced and coined the term robot in a play called Rossom’s Universal Robots†. The play writer based the term off of the Czech meaning of the word â€Å"forced labor† (Long, 2007). ?  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   1923 The term robots entered the English language (Long, 2007). In the begging of the robots career they started relatively as â€Å"dumb machines† that did onl y slavish repetitive tasks.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     1985 Robotic Surgeries began with a robotic machine called the Puma 560. The user of the robot was a surgeon named Kwoh et al who perform neurosurgical biopsies with the machine. He wanted to be as accurate as possible and felt the machine would be able to perform a greater precision. ?  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The next person to use the Puma 560 was Davies et al three years later during a transurethral resection of the prostate Lippincott, W (2004). ?  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The next system that was later developed was PROBOT. This was a robot designed especially to assist with transurethral resection a man’s prostate.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   During the same time period that PROBOT was being developed, another machine called the ROBODOC was being developed. This robotic was designed to assist with precision of hip replacements. ROBODOC was the first surgical robot approved by the FDA. ?à ‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Researchers from the National Air and Space Administration (NASA) Ames became interested in using the information that was present from the previous robots to develop a technology called   telepresence surgery. The technology of telepresence became the major driving force behind the development of surgical robotic robots as we know them today. Lippincott, W (2004) ? 990’s Scientists from the National Air Space Administration teamed up with the Stanford Research Institute (SRI) to developed a dexterous telemanipulator for hand surgery with a design goal of give the surgeon the sense of   literally operating on the patient in front of them somewhat, instead of from across the room. ?  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The US Army recognized   the work being done by at the Stanford Research Institute and became interested of treating wounded soldiers remotely instead of putting   the surgeons in arms way the idea was to be able to treat solde rs and decrease mortality by â€Å"bringing the surgeon to the wounded soldier—through telepresence. ? Many of the surgeons and engineers working on surgical robotic systems for the Army eventually formed commercial ventures. These ventures lead to the introduction of robotics to civilian surgical communities. ?  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Computer Motion, Inc. of Santa Barbara, CA. This company used funding provided by the US Army to develop the Automated Endoscopic System for Optimal Positioning (AESOP), a robotic arm controlled by the surgeon voice commands to manipulate an endoscopic camera.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Shortly after AESOP was marketed, Integrated Surgical Systems (now Intuitive Surgical) of Mountain View, CA, licensed the SRI Green Telepresence Surgery system. This system underwent extensive redesign and was reintroduced as the Da Vinci (one of the world most used surgical assisted device today. ?  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   One year later C omputer Motion put the Zeus system into production   Robotic surgery today has certainly come a long way. The surgical procedure is similar to when it was first developed but more advanced in terms of the many procedures that robots can assist with.The device as we know it today is equipped with cameras and enhanced visual effects, to allow doctors the option of getting inside the body through tiny incisions and reparing what ever is necessary to be repared. The surgical procedure that I underwent conventionally is done by a surgeon making an eight to ten inch cut at the bottom of my stomach (very similar to the cut a woman gets when delivering a baby). I was hospitalized for three days and was given pain medication around the clock. Dr.Thad Denehy, MD (my surgeon) advised me that Robots in the field of surgery have dramatically changed the procedure and that my greatest benefit to having the Robotic Surgery was less pain, less bleeding and less scaring. Since the machine uses cam eras and enhanced visual effects, doctors make smaller incisions. The Da Vinci and Zeus system each use â€Å"arms† to operate. In order for these arms to get inside the body and operate, the robot only requires a one centimeter incision to fit each arm. For my procedure it would have required   three tiny incisions on my abdomen.The cut would have been about   one centimeter in   length (a little less than a half of an inch) to fit the arms of the robot instead of a 20 inch cut (about 8 inches) at the bottom of my stomach. According to Dr. Denehy the advantage to having the robot assist surgical procedure would have been that I would get smaller cuts the smaller cuts. He explained that smaller cuts are better because a large incision would require more time to heal. Another potential great advantage from getting the robot assist surgery Dr. Denhey explained would be less blood loss.This would be good for patients who are anemic (low blood count) or for people with medi cal conditions that cause them to bleed easily. In my case Im anemic so I would benefit from this procedure. With less blood loss and smaller incisions the the Dr. went on to advise me that would be less than half the recovery time of conventional surgery. Two weeks to full recovery instead of eight weeks to full recovery. This could be a determining factor for many people. a person who don’t have the luxury of staying out of work for more than eight weeks would be back to work in some cases as early as one week.According to Dr. Denehy the larger the cut the more trauma it cause to a persons body and the risk of getting an infection is high. Though Dr. Denehyy had such wonderful things to say about Robotic surgery I still wast convinced. One major disadvantage for me was the amount of experience he had with using the Robot assist device. He had only performed 32 surgeries using this machine while with the conventional surgery he had performed over 2000. I was very concerned a bout his experience level with this machine. This surgeon was recommended to me by two other doctors. According to Dr.Wai (One of my regular gynecologist) during my exam (before going to see Dr. Denhey) Dr. Denhey was the best surgeon in her opinion to remove my tumor. I was very freigtened that the best qualified doctor for the job only did this procedure 32 times with the robot that offered so many promises. In my research I learned that since robotic surgical procedure is a new technology   its uses and efficacy have not yet been well established (Anthony R. Lanfranco, BAS, Andres E. Castellanos, MD, Jaydev P. Desai, PhD,*† Ã‚   William C. Meyers, MD   (2011). I spoke with two surgions new in the field (Dr.Steven Choe, MD and Dr. Poovendran, Saththasivam, MD. to see if maybe Dr. Denehy experience level was due to him being an older surgeon. I was very surprised to learn that both new doctors had never used this equipment. I was told by both physicians that it wasnâ€℠¢t mandatory to learn how to use the machine but since the hospital had just purchased the machine they were both going to get training for using this machine. Surgeons start out their careers without learning about the robots initially. It is not mandatory for them to learn how to use the machine. This made me think of another disadvantage.What would happen if the surgeon performing the surgery become ill and need assistance. Who would jump in and assist him with the procedure ? If all surgions arnt on the same page with knowing how to use the machine Im not sure if this surgery is a benefit at all. As a patient I would be most confident knowing that if something should go wrong during the procedure with the health of my doctor another physicial in the vicinity of the hospital is ready and capable of jumping in and completing the procedure. According to Dr. many surgions still lack the skills of working with the surgical robot.Another disadvantage was that to date, most of the stud ies that have been done for the surgical robots has been of practicality of the equipment . The researchers of the technology haven’t done any follow up studies to date on a long-term period. At leart thatwas what my surgeon advised me during my consutation. I also learned that many procedures performed with the robotic surgical device will also soon be redesigned to optimize the use of robotic arms and increase efficiency. This is great for a patient looking to have a procedure done in the future but not so great for a patient waiting to have a procedure done today.Many of the disadvantages seem to be projects that can all go away with time and experience it see very likely that many disadvantages be remedied in the future( Anthony R. Lanfranco, BAS, Andres E. Castellanos, MD, Jaydev P. Desai, PhD,*† Ã‚   William C. Meyers, MD 2011) It became clear to me that though this technology offer many advantages there are some disadvantages that really concerns me. One of them b eing that because this equipment requires a surgeon to move the instruments while watching a video monitor potentially a lot could go wrong.Robot assist surgeries requires the surgeon to move in the opposite direction from the target on the monitor. If the surgeon becomes tired and forgets that he is to be moving in the opposite direction he or she can cause major damages. In order for this to work correctly it require a lot of hand eye coordination and great hand and finger dexterity. The idea that this procedure is done through the eyes and fingers of a human being, lead me to believe that this type of procedure is not safety proof.Perhaps even more important than the probability of a fault is the ability to detect that a fault has indeed occurred and prevent hazards resulting from it, that is, allow the robot to â€Å"fail safely†. This usually involves shutting the robot down and removing it from the patient, and having the operation manually completed by a surgeon. As th e task which the robot undertakes becomes more and more complicated, there is an increasing need for more complex hardware and software components (faster response, better accuracy, more degrees of freedom).This increases the probability of error exponentially. Software is notoriously difficult to reason about, while hardware reliability never ceases to be of prime importance. CONCLUSIONS Robotic surgery is rapidly making its way into the progression of surgical procedures as we know it today. Though the technology is fairly new it’s becoming the choice for surgery for both surgeon and patients. Many individuals still feel that they need time to completely trust theses machines and would probably consider it in a few more years.With the further use of this machine the pros will more than likely outweigh the cons. The more surgeons use this machine they will become more familiar with the different capabilities of Robotic Surgical devices. They will also figure out ways getter better trained and getting a lot of practice using the equipment. More studies will be done on the feasibility of the technology. Conventional Surgical techniques took thousands of years to develop to where it is today adding this new dimension to it will further expand and make better the many practices.People such as myself will take a second look at having the robot assist in with surgical procedures that involve myself and will probably be more excited about having to get smaller incisions and reduced recovery time for after surgery. References Brown University. (1999). Robotic surgery. Retrieved from http://biomed. brown. edu/Courses/BI108/BI108_2005_Groups/04/   Long, T. (2007, January 25). The robot cometh. Retrieved from http://www. wired. com/science/discoveries/news/2007/01/72500 Parmar, A. (2001). STRESS-FREE SURGERY. Siliconindia, 5(10), 44. Interview with Dr. DenehyInterview with  First year surgical resident at saint peters University Hospital Steven Choe Interview with first year sergical resident Povendran, saththasivam at saint peters university hospital Websites http://biomed. brown. edu/Courses/BI108/BI108_2008_Groups/group12/Roboticsurgery. html http://www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/pmc/articles/PMC1356187/ http://www. onlineschools. org/robotic-surgical-technology/ http://library. thinkquest. org/03oct/00760/ http://www. medscape. com/viewarticle/466691_5 Anthony R. Lanfranco, BAS, Andres E. Castellanos, MD, Jaydev P. Desai, PhD,*† Ã‚   William C. Meyers, MD SUMMARY

Late Pleistocene Environmental changes

The nippy achievement occurred from about 1.8 one million million eld ago up to 10,000 geezerhood ago. During this succession frame, early man as hygienic as all species nutriment on Earth at the time was subject to native climatic switchs which whitethorn get to shaped their evolution. The late Pleistocene and its transition into the Holocene were marked by extreme clime changes. The Pleistocene was the time of homogeneous cold brave throughout the world. However, during the last mentioned part of the Pleistocene, from about 18,000 up to 11,000 years ago, the weather began to warm up, resulting in glacial retreat and marked differences in seasonal worker temperatures. This adjoin in temperature was temporarily reverse by a phenomenon cal direct the younger genus Dryas.(Buchdahl) These changes gravely altered the then give birth ecologic systems. Populations were separated, most moved and some went extinct. The ecological rift that resulted led to mass mega an imate beingl extinctions, as well as grave evolutionary impacts on surviving species.Which of these changes would nurture most impact humans tribes?Most humans during the period were hunter-gatherers, subject on the flora and fauna of a given argona for their aboriginal needs. With the changes in weather, typesets, primary producers in the ecosystems populate humans began to die out. The loss of these plants would watch led many species of primary consumers to migrate in search of foliage. Since plants, mans source of sustenance, were dying, and since the animals, also dependent on plants were migrating, man then had no choice but to follow their run away and themselves migrate.Humans are, as compared to other species, to a greater extent adaptive to their surroundings. However, the harsh climatic conditions and their unevenness would have meant that a whiz contemporaries would have had to adapt to different draw. Although non all species are much tractable to dying out in the circumstances then, the effect of a lost species on an complete ecosystem would be disastrous. The loss of megafauna during the times, whether collectible to over-hunting of the starved humans or as a result of the environmental changes occurring would have led to an imbalance in the system, allowing for an increase in the prey population, most of which feed upon herbage, so that what little herbage at that time which was present was now consumed at a much more rapid rate.(Messer, 2006)The general thawing would have led to a invigorated series of established ecosystems. However, the occurrence of the Younger Dryas resulted into a throwback unto glaciations. Ecosystems that were adapting to the warming climate, plants, animals and humans, once more had to adapt to a different send of circumstances. (Buchdahl)Evidence shows that the Younger Dryas, an approximately megabyte year event ended abruptly, in a span of only some(prenominal) decades. This rapid change woul d have over again upset communities and ecosystems. The melting of glaciers resulted in flood of areas where ecosystems thrived during the ice age. The marked changes in seasonal temperatures again brought upon the extinctions of plants which have already change to the previously prevalent cold climate, again resulting in disruptions in ecosystems. The impact of these was snarl by man, who where at the top of the solid food chain. (Messer, 2006)In price of genetics, the changes brought upon by the migrations of human populations would have led to isolation. This isolation would have then resulted in inbreeding among a single population, further genetically separating one population from another, which could have led to differentiations in terms of race.Do you see parallels with issues of climate change today?The main issue in todays climate is globose warming. The Earth, as expressed from numerous scientific accounts is warming up. This could be seen as a parallel to the late Pleistocene warming that preceded the Younger Dryas. The younger dryas was state to be caused by the influxe of freshwater approach path from the melting of glaciers. These freshwaters mixed with established seawater streams, the resulting change in salinity disrupting the naval currents that shaped the climate. Like the late Pleistocene, we are now experiencing variations in local weather as well as in over all climate. Extinctions, which lead to disruptions in ecosystems, are at present occurring at alarming rates.What issues are particularly relevant?Man during the late Pleistocene has make do a long way to be the man we are today. However, what is still the like is our dependence on the ecosystem that sustains us. It is still plant and animals that provides us sustenance, trees that provides us raw materials and fuel. marked fluctuations in the weather would lead to disruptions in these ecosystems, which would force us to alter the manners we are living at the present in order to adapt. Also, unlike then, our species advances in civilization have introduced a new aspect, economics. No longer would hunter-gatherers, survival, when such a drastic phenomenon occurs, be based on a populations resources at and, dooming those of our species that, in these times, already have nothing to eat, to wear, to shelter in. kindred essay Summary The Environmental snub from HellREFERENCESBuchdahl, J. Palaeoclimatic Change The Younger Dryas Event Electronic Version. Retrieved June 4 2007 from http//www.ace.mmu.ac.uk/resources/gcc/5-3-2-1.html.Messer, A. E. (2006). Early Americans set about rapid late Pleistocene climate change and chaotic environments Electronic Version. EurekAlert. Retrieved June 4 2007 from http//www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2006-02/ps-eaf020606.php.

Deception Point Page 28

Should I consult Sexton? She quickly decided against it. He was in a meeting. Besides, if she told him ab turn out this e-mail, shed have to see to it him about the separates. She decided her informants offer to meet in public in broad daylight essential be to make Gabrielle feel safe. After all, this individual had done nothing but help her for the give out twain weeks. He or she was obviously a friend.Reading the e-mail one last time, Gabrielle check all over the clock. She had an hour.30The NASA administrator was feeling less nervy nowadays that the meteorite was successfully out of the nut. Everything is falling into place, he told himself as he headed crossways the dome to the function area of Michael Tolland. Nothing can stop us now.Hows it coming? Ekstrom asked, striding up behind the television scientist.Tolland glanced up from his computer, looking tired but enthusiastic. Editing is approximately done. Im vindicatory overlaying some of the extraction footage your people shot. Should be done importeearily.Good. The President had asked Ekstrom to transfer Tollands documentary to the exsanguinous House as soon as possible.Although Ekstrom had been misanthropic about the Presidents desire to use Michael Tolland on this project, perceive the rough cuts of Tollands documentary had changed Ekstroms mind. The television stars spirited narrative, feature with his interviews of the civilian scientists, had been brilliantly fused into a electrifying and comprehensible fifteen minutes of scientific programming. Tolland had achieved effortlessly what NASA so often failed to do-describe a scientific discovery at the level of the average American soul without being patronizing.When youre done editing, Ekstrom said, bring the consummate harvest-time over to the press area. Ill have psyche upload a digital copy to the White House.Yes, sir. Tolland went back end to work.Ekstrom moved on. When he arrived at the northeasterly wall, he was encou raged to find the habispheres press area had obtain together nicely. A large blue spread over had been rolled out on the ice. Centered on the rug sat a long symposium send back with several microphones, a NASA drape, and an enormous American pin as a backdrop. To complete the visual drama, the meteorite had been transported on a palette sled to its position of honor, without delay in front of the symposium table.Ekstrom was pleased to see the liquid body substance in the press area was one of celebration. practically of his staff was now crowded around the meteorite, memory their hands out over its still-warm mass handle campers around a campfire.Ekstrom decided that this was the moment. He walked over to several cardboard boxes sitting on the ice behind the press area. Hed had the boxes flown in from Greenland this morning.Drinks are on me he scream, handing out cans of beer to his cavorting staff.Hey, boss mortal yelled. convey Its even coldEkstrom gave a rare smile. Iv e been memory it on ice.Everyone laughed.Wait a minute someone else yelled, scowling even-temperedly at his can. This stuffs Canadian Wheres your patriotism?Were on a budget, here, folks. Cheapest stuff I could find.to a greater extent laughter.Attention shoppers, one of the NASA television clustering yelled into a megaphone. Were about to switch to media visible light. You may check temporary blindness.And no kissing in the disastrous, someone yelled. This is a family programEkstrom chuckled, enjoying the raillery as his crew made final adjustments to the spotlights and accent lighting.Switching to media lighting in five, four, ternary, two The domes interior dimmed chop-chop as the halogen lamps shut down. Within seconds, all the lights were off. An great(p) duskiness engulfed the dome.Someone let out a mock scream.Who pinched my ass? someone yelled, laughing.The lightlessness lasted besides a moment forrader it was pierced by the intense glare of media spotlights. Eve ryone squinted. The transformation was now complete the north quadrant of the NASA habisphere had become a television studio. The remainder of the dome now looked equal a gaping barn at night. The barely light in the other sections was the muted reprimand of the media lights reflecting off the arched ceiling and throwing long shadows across the now deserted work stations.Ekstrom stepped back into the shadows, gratify to see his team carousing around the lighten meteorite. He felt like a stupefy at Christmas, watching his kids enjoy themselves around the tree. beau ideal knows they deserve it, Ekstrom thought, never suspecting what calamity lay ahead.31The weather was changing.Like a mournful predecessor of impending conflict, the katabatic wind let out a plaintive howl and gusted hard against the Delta Forces shelter. Delta-One finished battening down the storm coverings and went back inside to his two partners. Theyd been through this before. It would soon pass.Delta-Two was staring at the stretch forth video feed from the microbot. You better look at this, he said.Delta-One came over. The inside of the habisphere was in total darkness except for the bright lighting on the north side of the dome near the stage. The remainder of the habisphere appeared only as a dim outline. Its nothing, he said. Theyre just testing their television lighting for tonight.The lightings not the problem. Delta-Two pointed to the dark blob in the middle of the ice-the piss-filled hole from which the meteorite had been extracted. Thats the problem.Delta-One looked at the hole. It was still surrounded by pylons, and the surface of the water appeared calm. I dont see anything.Look again. He maneuvered the joystick, coiling the microbot down toward the surface of the hole.As Delta-One studied the darken pool of melted water more closely, he saw something that caused him to recoil in shock. What the?Delta-Three came over and looked. He too looked stunned. My God. Is that the ex traction pit? Is the water supposed(p) to be doing that?No, Delta-One said. It sure as hell isnt.32Although Rachel Sexton was currently sitting inside a large metal box situated three thousand miles from Washington, D.C., she felt the same pressure as if shed been summoned to the White House. The videophone monitor before her displayed a vitreous silica clear image of President Zach Herney seated in the White House communications room before the presidential seal. The digital audio connection was flawless, and with the ejection of an roughly imperceptible delay, the man could have been in the next room.Their conversation was upbeat and direct. The President seemed pleased, though not at all surprised, by Rachels companionable assessment of NASAs find and of his choice to use Michael Tollands enchant persona as a spokesman. The Presidents mood was good-natured and jocular.As Im sure you will agree, Herney said, his voice ripening more serious now, in a better world, the ramif ications of this discovery would be purely scientific in nature. He paused, leaning forward, his face filling the screen. Unfortunately, we dont rest in a perfect world, and this NASA triumph is exhalation to be a political football the moment I announce it.Considering the conclusive proof and who youve recruited for endorsements, I cant imagine how the public or any of your foeman will be able to do anything other than accept this discovery as confirmed fact.Herney gave an almost sad chuckle. My political opponents will believe what they see, Rachel. My concerns are that they wont like what they see.